America's "Judeo-Christian founding"

[Prairie_Scouter]

Well, SOMEBODY had to protect every Americans right to a Cuban cigar

[SemperParatus]

"This is a Christian Nation" ~ US Supreme Court.

 

Unlike the cases of 1962 and 1963, this court offered precedent for its decision (87 in total) to support its conclusion that the US in indeed a Christian nation.

 

 

THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT

HOLY TRINITY CHURCH v. U.S.

143 U.S. 457, 12 S.Ct. 511, 36 L.Ed. 226

Feb. 29, 1892

 

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"These and many other matters which might be noticed, add a volume of unofficial declarations to the mass of organic utterances that this is a Christian nation."

 

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SYNOPSIS

 

In error to the circuit court of the United States for the southern district of New York. Reversed.

 

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HEADNOTES

 

ALIENS 50

 

The word "labor" as used in the alien labor contract law, 23 Stat. 332, prohibiting the importation of foreigners under contract to perform labor, etc., means manual labor as distinguished from that of a professional man, as a clergyman.

 

ALIENS 50

 

Although the alien contract labor law, 23 Stat. 332, prohibits the importation of "any" foreigners under contract to perform "labor or service of any kind," yet it does not apply to one who comes to this country under contract to enter the service of a church as its rector.

 

STATUTES 183

 

It is within the power of courts to declare that a thing which is within the letter of a statute is not governed by the statute, because not within its spirit or the intention of its makers.

 

STATUTES 210

 

In the construction of a statute, both the title and preamble may be considered in doubtful cases.

 

STATUTES 211

 

Where doubt exists as to meaning of a statute, the title may be looked to for aid in its construction.

 

STATUTES 212

 

It being historically true that the American people are a religious people, as shown by the religious objects expressed by the original grants and charters of the colonies, and the recognition of religion in the most solemn acts of their history, as well as in the constitutions of the states and the nation, the courts, in construing statutes should not impute to any legislature a purpose of action against religion.

 

STATUTES 215

 

In construing a doubtful statute the court will consider the evil which it was designed to remedy, and for this purpose will look into contemporaneous events, including the situation as it existed, and as it was pressed upon the attention of the legislative body, while the act was under consideration.

 

 

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COUNSEL

 

[*511] [143 U.S. 457, 457] Seaman Miller, for plaintiff in error.

 

Asst. Atty. Gen. Maury, for the United States.

 

 

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OPINION

 

Mr. Justice BREWER delivered the opinion of the court.

 

Plaintiff in error is a corporation duly organized and incorporated as a religious society under the laws of the state of New York. E. Walpole Warren was, prior to September, [143 U.S. 457, 458] 1887, an alien residing in England. In that month the plaintiff in error made a contract with him, by which he was to remove to the city of New York, and enter into its service as rector and pastor; and, in pursuance of such contract, Warren did so remove and enter upon such service. It is claimed by the United States that this contract on the part of the plaintiff in error was forbidden by chapter 164, 23 St. p. 332; and an action was commenced to recover the penalty prescribed by that act. The circuit court held that the contract was within the prohibition of the statute, and rendered judgment accordingly, (36 Fed. Rep. 303,) and the single question presented for our determination is whether it erred in that conclusion.

 

The first section describes the act forbidden, and is in these words:

 

'Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives of the United States of America, in congress assembled, that from and after the passage of this act it shall be unlawful for any person, company, partnership, or corporation, in any manner whatsoever, to prepay the transportation, or in any way assist or encourage the importation or migration, of any alien or aliens, any foreigner or foreigners, into the United States, its territories, or the District of Columbia, under contract or agreement, parol or special, express or implied, made previous to the inportation or migration of such alien or aliens, foreigner or foreigners, to perform labor or service of any kind in the United States, its territories, or the District of Columbia.'

 

It must be conceded that the act of the corporation is within the letter of this section, for the relation of rector to his church is one of service, and implies labor on the one side with compensation on the other. Not only are the general words 'labor' and 'service' both used, but also, as it [*512] were to guard against any narrow interpretation and emphasize a breadth of meaning, to them is added 'of any kind;' and, further, as noticed by the circuit judge in his opinion, the fifth section, which makes specific exceptions, among them professional actors, artists, lecturers, singers, and domestic [143 U.S. 457, 459] servants, strengthens the idea that every other kind of labor and service was intended to be reached by the first section. While there is great force to this reasoning, we cannot think congress intended to denounce with penalties a transaction like that in the present case. It is a familiar rule that a thing may be within the letter of the statute and yet not within the statute, because not within its spirit nor within the intention of its makers. This has been often asserted, and the Reports are full of cases illustrating its application. This is not the substitution of the will of the judge for that of the legislator; for frequently words of general meaning are used in a statute, words broad enough to include an act in question, and yet a consideration of the whole legislation, or of the circumstances surrounding its enactment, or of the absurd results which follow from giving such broad meaning to the words, makes it unreasonable to believe that the legislator intended to include the particular act. As said in Stradling v. Morgan, Plow. 205: 'From which cases it appears that the sages of the law heretofore have construed statutes quite contrary to the letter in some appearance, and those statutes which comprehend all things in the letter they have expounded to extend to but some things, and those which generally prohibit all people from doing such an act they have interpreted to permit some people to do it, and those which include every person in the letter they have adjudged to reach to some persons only, which expositions have always been founded upon the intent of the legislature, which they have collected sometimes by considering the cause and necessity of making the act, sometimes by comparing one part of the act with another, and sometimes by foreign circumstances.'

 

In Pier Co. v. Hannam, 3 Barn. & Ald. 266, ABBOTT, C. J., quotes from Lord Coke as follows: 'Acts of parliament are to be so construed as no man that is innocent or free from injury or wrong be, by a literal construction, punished or endangered.' In the case of State v. Clark, 29 N. J. Law, 96, 99, it appeared that an act had been passed, making it a misdemeanor to willfully break down a fence in the possession of another person. Clark was indicted [143 U.S. 457, 460] under that statute. The defense was that the act of breaking down the fence, though willful, was in the exercise of a legal right to go upon his own lands. The trial court rejected the testimony offered to sustain the defense, and the supreme court held that this ruling was error. In its opinion the court used this language: 'The act of 1855, in terms, makes the willful opening, breaking down, or injuring of any fences belonging to or in the possession of any other person a misdemeanor. In what sense is the term 'willful' used? In common parlance, 'willful' is used in the sense of 'intentional,' as distinguished from 'accidental' or 'involuntary.' Whatever one does intentionally, he does willfully. Is it used in that sense in this act? Did the legislature intend to make the intentional opening of a fence for the purpose of going upon the land of another indictable, if done by permission or for a lawful purpose? * * * We cannot suppose such to have been the actual intent. To adopt such a construction would put a stop to the ordinary business of life. The language of the act, if construed literally, evidently leads to an absurd result. If a literal construction of the words of a statute be absurd, the act must be so construed as to avoid the absurdity. The court must restrain the words. The object designed to be reached by the act must limit and control the literal import of the terms and phrases employed.' In U. S. v. Kirby, 7 Wall. 482, 486, the defendants were indicted for the violation of an act of congress providing 'that if any person shall knowingly and willfully obstruct or retard the passage of the mail, or of any driver or carrier, or of any horse or carriage carrying the same, he shall, upon conviction, for every such offense, pay a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars.' The specific charge was that the defendants knowingly and willfully retarded the passage of one Farris, a carrier of the mail, while engaged in the performance of his duty, and also in like manner retarded the steam-boat Gen. Buell, at that time engaged in carrying the mail. To this indictment the defendants pleaded specially that Farris had been indicted for murder by a court of competent authority in Kentucky; that a bench-warrant had been issued and [143 U.S. 457, 461] placed in the hands of the defendant Kirby, the sheriff of the county, commanding him to arrest Farris, and bring him before the court to answer to the indictment; and that, in obedience to this warrant, he and the other defendants, as his posse, entered upon the steamboat Gen. Buell and arrested Farris, and used only such force as was necessary to accomplish that arrest. The question as to the sufficiency of this plea was certified to this court, and it was held that the arrest of Farris upon the warrant from the state court was not an obstruction of the mail, or the retarding of the passage of a carrier of the mail, within the meaning of the act. In its opinion the court says: 'All laws should receive a sensible construction. General terms should be so limited in their application as not to lead to injustice, oppression, or an absurd consequence. It will always, therefore, be presumed that the legislature intended exceptions to its language which would avoid results of this character. The reason of the law in such cases should prevail over its letter. The common sense of man approves the judgment mentioned by Puffendorf, that the Bolognian law which enacted 'that whoever drew blood in the streets should be punished with the utmost severity,' did not extend to the surgeon who opened the vein of a person that fell down in the street in a fit. The same [*513] common sense accepts the ruling, cited by Plowden, that the statute of 1 Edw. II., which enacts that a prisoner who breaks prison shall be guilty of felony, does not extend to a prisoner who breaks out when the prison is on fire, 'for he is not to be hanged because he would not stay to be burnt.' And we think that a like common sense will sanction the ruling we make, that the act of congress which punishes the obstruction or retarding of the passage of the mail, or of its carrier, does not apply to a case of temporary detention of the mail caused by the arrest of the carrier upon an indictment for murder.' The following cases may also be cited: Henry v. Tilson, 17 Vt. 479; Ryegate v. Wardsboro, 30 Vt. 743; Ex parte Ellis, 11 Cal. 220; Ingraham v. Speed, 30 Miss. 410; Jackson v. Collins, 3 Cow. 89; People v. Insurance Co., 15 Johns. 358; Burch v. Newbury, 10 N. Y. 374; People v. [143 U.S. 457, 462] Commissioners, 95 N. Y. 554, 558; People v. Lacombe, 99 N. Y. 43, 49, 1 N. E. Rep. 599; Chesapeake & Ohio Canal Co. v. Baltimore & Ohio R. Co., 4 Gill & J. 152; Osgood v. Breed, 12 Mass. 525, 530; Wilbur v. Crane, 13 Pick. 284; Oates v. Bank, 100 U. S. 239.

 

Among other things which may be considered in determining the intent of the legislature is the title of the act. We do not mean that it may be used to add to or take from the body of the statute, (Hadden v. Collector, 5 Wall. 107,) but it may help to interpret its meaning. In the case of U. S. v. Fisher, 2 Cranch, 358, 386, Chief Justice MARSHALL said: 'On the infiuence which the title ought to have in construing the enacting clauses, much has been said, and yet it is not easy to discern the point of difference between the opposing counsel in this respect. Neither party contends that the title of an act can control plain words in the body of the statute; and neither denies that, taken with other parts, it may assist in removing ambiguities. Where the intent is plain, nothing is left to construction. Where the mind labors to discover the design of the legislature, it seizes everything from which aid can be derived; and in such case the title claims a degree of notice, and will have its due share of consideration.' And in the case of U. S. v. Palmer, 3 Wheat. 610, 631, the same judge applied the doctrine in this way: 'The words of the section are in terms of unlimited extent. The words 'any person or persons' are broad enough to comprehend every human being. But general words must not only be limited to cases within the jurisdiction of the state, but also to those objects to which the legislature intended to apply them. Did the legislature intend to apply these words to the subjects of a foreign power, who in a foreign ship may commit murder or robbery on the high seas? The title of an act cannot control its words, but may furnish some aid in showing what was in the mind of the legislature. The title of this act is, 'An act for the punishment of certain crimes against the United States.' It would seem that offenses against the United States, not offenses against the human race, were the crimes which the legislature intended by this law to punish.'

 

[143 U.S. 457, 463] It will be seen that words as general as those used in the first section of this act were by that decision limited, and the intent of congress with respect to the act was gathered partially, at least, from its title. Now, the title of this act is, 'An act to prohibit the importation and migration of foreigners and aliens under contract or agreement to perform labor in the United States, its territories, and the District of Columbia. Obviously the thought expressed in this reaches only to the work of the manual laborer, as distinguished from that of the professional man. No one reading such a title would suppose that congress had in its mind any purpose of staying the coming into this country of ministers of the gospel, or, indeed, of any class whose toil is that of the brain. The common understanding of the terms 'labor' and 'laborers' does not include preaching and preachers, and it is to be assumed that words and phrases are used in their ordinary meaning. So whatever of light is thrown upon the statute by the language of the title indicates an exclusion from its penal provisions of all contracts for the employment of ministers, rectors, and pastors.

 

Again, another guide to the meaning of a statute is found in the evil which it is designed to remedy; and for this the court properly looks at contemporaneous events, the situation as it existed, and as it was pressed upon the attention of the legislative body. U. S. v. Railroad Co., 91 U. S. 72, 79. The situation which called for this statute was briefly but fully stated by Mr. Justice BROWN when, as district judge, he decided the case of U. S. v. Craig, 28 Fed. Rep. 795, 798: 'The motives and history of the act are matters of common knowledge. It had become the practice for large capitalists in this country to contract with their agents abroad for the shipment of great numbers of an ignorant and servile class of foreign laborers, under contracts by which the employer agreed, upon the one hand, to prepay their passage, while, upon the other hand, the laborers agreed to work after their arrival for a certain time at a low rate of wages. The effect of this was to break down the labor market, and to reduce other laborers engaged in like occupations to the level [143 U.S. 457, 464] of the assisted immigrant. The evil finally became so flagrant that an appeal was made to congress for relief by the passage of the act in question, the design of which was to raise the standard of foreign immigrants, and to discountenance the migration of those who had not sufficient means in their own hands, or those of their friends, to pay their passage.'

 

It appears, also, from the petitions, and in the testimony presented before the committees of congress, that it was this cheap, unskilled labor which was making the trouble, and the influx of which congress sought to prevent. It was never suggested that we had in this country a surplus of brain toilers, and, least of all, that the market for the services of Christian ministers was depressed by foreign competition. Those were matters to which the attention of congress, or of the people, was not directed. So far, then, as the evil which [*514] was sought to be remedied interprets the statute, it also guides to an exclusion of this contract from the penalties of the act.

 

A singular circumstance, throwing light upon the intent of congress, is found in this extract from the report of the senate committee on education and labor, recommending the passage of the bill: 'The general facts and considerations which induce the committee to recommend the passage of this bill are set forth in the report of the committee of the house. The committee report the bill back without amendment, although there are certain features thereof which might well be changed or modified, in the hope that the bill may not fail of passage during the present session. Especially would the committee have otherwise recommended amendments, substituting for the expression, 'labor and service,' whenever it occurs in the body of the bill, the words 'manual labor' or 'manual service,' as sufficiently broad to accomplish the purposes of the bill, and that such amendments would remove objections which a sharp and perhaps unfriendly criticism may urge to the proposed legislation. The committee, however, believing that the bill in its present form will be construed as including only those whose labor or service is manual in character, and being very desirous that the bill become a law before the adlournment, have reported the bill without [143 U.S. 457, 465] change.' Page 6059, Congressional Record, 48th Cong. And, referring back to the report of the committee of the house, there appears this language: 'It seeks to restrain and prohibit the immigration or importation of laborers who would have never seen our shores but for the inducements and allurements of men whose only object is to obtain labor at the lowest possible rate, regardless of the social and material well-being of our own citizens, and regardless of the evil consequences which result to American laborers from such immigration. This class of immigrants care nothing about our institutions, and in many instances never even heard of them. They are men whose passage is paid by the importers. They come here under contract to labor for a certain number of years. They are ignorant of our social condition, and, that they may remain so, they are isolated and prevented from coming into contact with Americans. They are generally from the lowest social stratum, and live upon the coarsest food, and in hovels of a character before unknown to American workmen. They, as a rule, do not become citizens, and are certainly not a desirable acquisition to the body politic. The inevitable tendency of their presence among us is to degrade American labor, and to reduce it to the level of the imported pauper labor.' Page 5359, Congressional Record, 48th Cong.

 

 

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We find, therefore, that the title of the act, the evil which was intended to be remedied, the circumstances surrounding the appeal to congress, the reports of the committee of each house, all concur in affirming that the intent of congress was simply to stay the influx of this cheap, unskilled labor.

 

 

--------------------------------------------------But, beyond all these matters, no purpose of action against religion can be imputed to any legislation, state or national, because this is a religious people. This is historically true. From the discovery of this continent to the present hour, there is a single voice making this affirmation. The commission to Christopher Columbus, prior to his sail westward, is from "Ferdinand and Isabella, by the grace of God, king and queen of Castile," etc., and recites that "it is hoped that by God's assistance some of the continents and islands in the [496] ocean will be discovered," etc. The first colonial grant, that made to Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584, was from "Elizabeth, by the grace of God, of England, Fraunce, and Ireland, queene, defender of the faith," etc.; and the grant authorizing him to enact statutes of the government of the proposed colony provided that "they be not against the true Christian faith nowe professed in the Church of England." The first charter of Virginia, granted by King James I. in 1606, after reciting the application of certain parties for a charter, commenced the grant in these words: "We, greatly commending, and graciously accepting of, their Desires for the Furtherance of so noble a Work, which may, by the Providence of Almighty God, hereafter tend to the Glory of His Divine Majesty, in propagating of Christian Religion to such People, as yet live in Darkness and miserable Ignorance of the true Knowledge and Worship of God, and may in time bring the Infidels and Savages, living in those parts, to human Civility, and to a settled and quiet Government; DO, by these our Letters-Patents, graciously accept of, and agree to, their humble and well-intentioned Desires."

 

Language of similar import may be found in the subsequent charters of that colony from the same king, in 1609 and 1611; and the same is true of the various charters granted to the other colonies. In language more or less emphatic is the establishment of the Christian religion declared to be one of the purposes of the grant. The celebrated compact made by the pilgrims in the Mayflower, 1620, recites: "Having undertaken for the Glory of God, and Advancement of the Christian Faith, and the Honour of our King and Country, a Voyage to plant the first Colony in the northern Parts of Virginia; Do by these Presents, solemnly and mutually, in the Presence of God and one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil Body Politick, for our better Ordering and Preservation, and Furtherance of the Ends aforesaid."

 

The fundamental orders of Connecticut, under which a provisional government was instituted in 1638-39, commence with this declaration: "Forasmuch as it hath pleased the Allmighty God by the wise disposition of his diuyne pruidence [143 U.S. 457, 467] so to order and dispose of things that we the Inhabitants and Residents of Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield are now cohabiting and dwelling in and vppon the River of Conectecotte and the Lands thereunto adioyneing; And well knowing where a people are gathered togather the word of {515} God requires that to mayntayne the peace and union of such a people there should be an orderly and decent Gouerment established according to God, to order and dispose of the affayres of the people at all seasons as occation shall require; doe therefore assotiate and conioyne our selues to be as one Publike State or Commonwelth; and doe, for our selues and our Successors and such as shall be adioyned to vs att any tyme hereafter, enter into Combination and Confederation togather, to mayntayne and presearue the liberty and purity of the gospell of our Lord Jesus wch we now prfesse, as also the disciplyne of the Churches, wch according to the truth of the said gospell is now practised amongst vs."

 

In the charter of privileges granted by William Penn to the province of Pennsylvania, in 1701, it is recited: "Because no People can be truly happy, though under the greatest Enjoyment of Civil Liberties, if abridged of the Freedom of their Consciences, as to their Religious Profession and Worship; And Almighty God being the only Lord of Conscience, Father of Lights and Spirits; and the Author as well as Object of all divine Knowledge, Faith, and Worship, who only doth enlighten the Minds, and persuade and convince the Understandings of People, I do hereby grant and declare," etc.

 

Coming nearer to the present time, the declaration of independence recognizes the presence of the Divine in human affairs in these words: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." "We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare," etc.; "And for the [143 U.S. 457, 468] support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor."

 

If we examine the constitutions of the various states, we find in them a constant recognition of religious obligations. Every constitution of every one of the 44 states contains language which, either directly or by clear implication, recognizes a profound reverence for religion, and an assumption that its influence in all human affairs is essential to the well-being of the community. This recognition may be in the preamble, such as is found in the constitution of Illinois, 1870: "We, the people of the state of Illinois, grateful to Almighty God for the civil, political, and religious liberty which He hath so long permitted us to enjoy, and looking to Him for a blessing upon our endeavors to secure and transmit the same unimpaired to succeeding generations," etc.

 

It may be only in the familiar requisition that all officers shall take an oath closing with the declaration, "so help me God." It may be in clauses like that of the constitution of Indiana, 1816, art. 11, 4: "The manner of administering an oath or affirmation shall be such as is most consistent with the conscience of the deponent, and shall be esteemed the most solemn appeal to God." Or in provisions such as are found in articles 36 and 37 of the declaration of the rights of the constitution of Maryland, (1867): "That, as it is the duty of every man to worship God in such manner as he thinks most acceptable to Him, all persons are equally entitled to protection in their religious liberty: wherefore, no person ought, by any law, to be molested in his person or estate on account of his religious persuasion or profession, or for his religious practice, unless, under the color of religion, he shall disturb the good order, peace, or safety of the state, or shall infringe the laws of morality, or injure others in their natural, civil, or religious rights; nor ought any person to be compelled to frequent or maintain or contribute, unless on contract, to maintain any place of worship or any ministry; nor shall any person, otherwise competent, be deemed incompetent as a witness or juror on account of his religious belief: provided, he [143 U.S. 457, 469] believes in the existence of God, and that, under his dispensation, such person will be held morally accountable for his acts, and be rewarded or punished therefor, either in this world or the world to come. That no religious test ought ever to be required as a qualification for any office or profit or trust in this state, other than a declaration of belief in the existence of God; nor shall the legislature prescribe any other oath of office than the oath prescribed by this constitution." Or like that in articles 2 and 3 of part 1 of the constitution of Massachusetts, (1780:) "It is the right as well as the duty of all men in society publicly, and at stated seasons, to worship the Supreme Being, the Great Creator and Preserver of the universe. * * * As the happiness of a people and the good order and preservation of civil government essentially depend upon piety, religion, and morality, and as these cannot be generally diffused through a community but by the institution of the public worship of God and of public instructions in piety, religion, and morality: Therefore, to promote their happiness, and to secure the good order and preservation of their government, the people of this commonwealth have a right to invest their legislature with power to authorize and require, and the legislature shall, from time to time, authorize and require, the several towns, parishes, precincts, and other bodies politic or religious societies to make suitable provision, at their own expense, for the institution of the public worship of God and for the support and maintenance of public Protestant teachers of piety, religion and morality, in all cases where such provisions shall not be made voluntarily." Or, as in sections 5 and 14 of article 7 of the constitution of Mississippi, (1832:) "No person who denies the being of a God, or a future state of rewards and punishments, shall hold any office in the civil department of this state. * * * Religion {516} morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government, the preservation of liberty, and the happiness of mankind, schools, and the means of education, shall forever be encouraged in this state." Or by article 22 of the constitution of Delaware, (1776,) which required all officers, besides an oath of allegiance, to make and subscribe the following declaration: "I, A.B., do profess [143 U.S. 457, 470] faith in God the Father, and in Jesus Christ His only Son, and in the Holy Ghost, one God, blessed for evermore; and I do acknowledge the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be given by divine inspiration."

 

Even the constitution of the United States, which is supposed to have little touch upon the private life of the individual, contains in the first amendment a declaration common to the constitutions of all the states, as follows: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," etc., - and also provides in article 1, 7, (a provision common to many constitutions,) that the executive shall have 10 days (Sundays excepted) within which to determine whether he will approve or veto a bill.

 

There is no dissonance in these declarations. There is a universal language pervading them all, having one meaning. They affirm and reaffirm that this is a religious nation. These are not individual sayings, declarations of private persons. They are organic utterances. They speak the voice of the entire people. While because of a general recognition of this truth the question has seldom been presented to the courts, yet we find that in Updegraph v. Comm., 11 Serg. & R. 394, 400, it was decided that, "Christianity, general Christianity, is, and always has been, a part of the common law of Pennsylvania; * * * not Christianity with an established church and tithes and spiritual courts, but Christianity with liberty of conscience to all men." And in People v. Ruggles, 8 Johns. 290, 294, 295, Chancellor KENT, the great commentator on American law, speaking as chief justice of the supreme court of New York, said: "The people of this state, in common with the people of this country, profess the general doctrines of Christianity as the rule of their faith and practice; and to scandalize the author of those doctrines in not only, in a religious point of view, extremely impious, but, even in respect to the obligations due to society, is a gross violation of decency and good order. * * * The free, equal, and undisturbed enjoyment of religious opinion, whatever it may be, and free and decent discussions on any religious [143 U.S. 457, 471] subject, is granted and secured; but to revile, with malicious and blasphemous contempt, the religion professed by almost the whole community is an abuse of that right. Nor are we bound by any expressions in the constitution, as some have strangely supposed, either not to punish at all, or to punish indiscriminately the like attacks upon the religion of Mahomet or of the Grand Lama; and for this plain reason that the case assumes that we are a Christian people, and the morality of the country is deeply ingrafted upon Christianity, and not upon the doctrines or worship of those impostors." And in the famous case of Vidal v. Girard's Ex'rs, 2 How. 127, 198, this court, while sustaining the will of Mr. Girard, with its provisions for the creation of a college into which no minister should be permitted to enter, observed: "it is also said, and truly, that the Christian religion is a part of the common law of Pennsylvania."

 

If we pass beyond these matters to a view of American life, as expressed by its laws, its business, its customs, and its society, we find everywhere a clear recognition of the same truth. Among other matters note the following: The form of oath universally prevailing, concluding with an appeal to the Almighty; the custom of opening sessions of all deliberative bodies and most conventions with prayer; the prefatory words of all wills, "In the name of God, amen;" the laws respecting the observance of the Sabbath, with the general cessation of all secular business, and the closing of courts, legislatures, and other similar public assemblies on that day; the churches and church organizations which abound in every city, town, and hamlet; the multitude of charitable organizations existing everywhere under Christian auspices; the gigantic missionary associations, with general support, and aiming to establish Christian missions in every quarter of the globe. These and many other matters which might be noticed, add a volume of unofficial declarations to the mass of organic utterances that this is a Christian nation. In the face of all these, shall it be believed that a congress of the United States intended to make it a misdemeanor for a church of this country to contract for the services of a Christian minister residing in another nation?

 

[143 U.S. 457, 472] Suppose, in the congress that passed this act, some member had offered a bill which in terms declared that, if any Roman Catholic church in this country should contract with Cardinal Manning to come to this country, and enter into its service as pastor and priest, or any Episcopal church should enter into a like contract with Canon Farrar, or any Baptist church should make similar arrangements with Rev. Mr. Spurgeon, or any Jewish synagogue with some eminent rabbi, such contract should be adjudged unlawful and void, and the church making it be subject to prosecution and punishment. Can it be believed that it would have received a minute of approving thought or a single vote? Yet it is contended that such was, in effect, the meaning of this statute. The construction invoked cannot be accepted as correct. It is a case where there was presented a definite evil, in view of which the legislature used general terms with the purpose of reaching all phases of that evil; and thereafter, unexpectedly, it is developed that the general language thus employed is broad enough to reach cases and acts which the whole history and life of the country affirm could not have been intentionally legislated against. It is the duty of the courts, under those circumstances, to say that, however {517} broad the language of the statute may be, the act, although within the letter, is not with the intention of the legislature, and therefore cannot be within the statute.

 

The judgment will be reversed, and the case remanded for further proceedings in accordance with the opinion.

 

 

[scoutingagain]

I've been enjoying monitoring this thread but had to step in here just to clarify a couple of points.

 

The following is from Factcheck.org and is a site that is non-partisan and tries to publish correct information related to statements various politicians from either party may have made. There are at least as many posting correcting staements from Democrats and there are those made by Republicans.

 

The following is from an article discussing the Iraq-Alqueda connection.

 

"The staff of the The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (also known as the 9-11 Commission) issued a statement June 16 saying it found "no credible evidence that Iraq and al Qaeda cooperated on attacks against the United States." It also said "contacts" between al Qaeda and Iraq "do not appear to have resulted in a collaborative relationship."

 

Believe what you wish to believe, but while there may have been some contact between Al-queda and the Iraqi Government, as did several other Arab governments, Iraq had nothing to do with 9/11. And while there are dozens of partisan websites that publish plenty of material indicating otherwise, the fact is, it's just not true.

 

It just bothers me that so many reasonable people still believe that this connection ever existed when there is so much credible information out there that disputes this. What else, other than a conclusion made by an independant commision, charged with investigating the attacks on 9/11, and whose results are acknowledged by the current administration make folks who still believe Iraq had something to do with 9/11 change their minds?

 

When this country goes to war, and willing to sacrifice those who are willing to volunteer to serve in the armed forces, it had better be based on something more credible than political spin.

 

Sorry for the rant.

 

SA

 

 

[CubsRgr8]

I'd like to respond to TJ's orginal post. You seem to be disputing the notion that this country was founded upon Judeo-Christian values. Come on, are you serious? If not Judeo-Christian values, then what values? Buddist? Animist? Islam? Aztec? I think not.

 

In 1776, Judeo-Christian values permeated Western culture to a much greater extent than they do today. Just which Judeo-Christain values* did the founding fathers reject? Have you read the Declaration of Independance lately?

 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.

 

In 1776, this statement was impossible outside of a culture that did not possess the Judeo-Christian values about the worth and responsibility of the individual. Even today, the culture of this country is profoundly affected and shaped by Judeo-Christian values, as is the culture of every other country founded by European immigrants. To deny this is to deny our European cultural heritage.

 

*The divinity of Jesus Christ is a Christian religious belief, not a Judeo-Christian value.

[packsaddle]

scoutingagain, "It just bothers me that so many reasonable people still believe..."

 

Find a copy of "Leadership and Self-Deception" and read it. All of this (this entire thread) and more will begin to make perfect sense. Careful though, you may not enjoy the implications of what it means.

[Rooster7]

It just bothers me that so many reasonable people still believe...

 

You find a web site which claims to be non-partisan and thus every word must be true? Im not saying there is a connection. However, Im not convinced that there wasnt either. No credible evidence, doesnt mean there isnt any to be found. Likewise, contacts which "do not appear to have resulted in a collaborative relationship, doesnt mean there could not have been one. As I said, Im not convinced either way. However, to totally dismiss the possibility is just as unreasonable and irresponsible. The absence of proof is not validation for either side of the argument.

 

Furthermore, President Bush never said we went to war because there was a connection. As I recall, it was mentioned as a potential concern - but it was not the impetus for the war. Evidence of Iraqs intentions to pursue WMDs and Husseins lack of cooperation prompted our military action. Whether or not WMDs are found or not, does not negate the intelligence that Iraq, given the opportunity, would have developed these weapons.

 

Lastly, try to remember just what kind of a man Hussein is. Removing him from power was the right thing to do no matter what Iraqs capability was or could have been. He murdered thousands. He was not going to change his ways. If the foolishness of the U.N. is willing to permit such a tyrant to exist, even when they have the power to do something about it, then we (the U.S.) should reconsider our participation in such an organization.

 

As much as wed like to believe the U.N. is a precursor to The United Federation of Planetswe must come to grips with the fact that such an organization only existence in Gene Rodenberrys mind. Its a great idea, but the governments of this world the real world, do not reflect those selfless, peaceful societies that joined forces to bravely explore the fictional world of Star Trek. So, please, spare me the speech as to how our government has caused you embarrassment by ignoring the U.N.s desires and striking out on their own (never mind that it was done in the name of righteousness).

 

Find a copy of "Leadership and Self-Deception" and read it. All of this (this entire thread) and more will begin to make perfect sense. Careful though, you may not enjoy the implications of what it means.

 

Instead of slandering those who disagree with you, try to argue the facts. Otherwise, you will only lose your credibility.

 

[Prairie_Scouter]

Rooster,

So, we're not supposed to believe the findings of the 9-11 commission? At what point do we have enough evidence? Who would you find believable?

 

Don't you find it kind of bothersome that so far nobody's been able to substantiate any of the claims the U.S. made before invading Iraq? At some point, don't you need some evidence?

 

Saddam is/was a really bad guy, no doubt about it, and that's a good thing for the U.S. because that seems to be the only credible reason that we have for invading Iraq at this point. But, if the reason we did that is because he was a terrible leader and killed a lot of his citizens, I guess we've got a few more invasions in front of us, given the number of bad leaders who are killing their citizens that are still around. Which does bring the question of why haven't we done anything about other occurences of this kind of thing around the world?

 

The U.N. isn't there to forward the agenda of the United States. It certainly isn't perfect, but I think it does a reasonable job of trying to bring together a large number of countries, each with their own agenda. It doesn't help the U.N. that the U.S. is walking around basically saying, "we're a member of the U.N., but we're not going to let that stop us from going and blowing up some other country if we don't happen to agree with their agenda". Sure, we could walk away. We've walked out on other treaty obligations during this administration; what's one more?

 

What makes you think that the invasion of Iraq had anything to do with "righteousness"?

 

And, how is suggesting that someone read a book "slanderous"?

 

Besides, I don't think that the United Federation of Planets is the right analogy. I think we're closer to Klaatu from The Day the Earth Stood Still, informing us that we're getting too dangerous to be allowed out of our own back yard.

 

What part of our Judeo-Christian ethic says if you don't like somebody, it's ok to kill them?

[OldGreyEagle]

Those of you who remember history better than I, help me with this. As I remember it, Gulf War 1 happened because Iraq/Saddam invaded Kuwait. Saddam didnt think anybody would care, he certainly didnt expect a multi-national military force to chase him back to his original border but that did happen. His war with Iran never got much attention, why should taking Kuwait matter? As part of the cease fire/surrender terms Saddam agreed to let the UN inspect his country for weapons of mass destruction. The WMD inspections thing was put in there because Saddam's military has used chemical weapons in the past and it was feared he had stockpiles and would use them again. So it was agreed, Saddam would stay leader of Iraq and he was supposed to let the UN look for WMD. By the way, the WMD inspection thing wasnt an American idea, it was put in by the UN. So, after approx 10 years or so, Iraq is not allowing UN inspectors to search for WMD and the UN passes, what was it? 17 resolutions telling Iraq that it had to honor the treaty it signed or else? I dont know about you guys, but when I have a scout walking around with his hand behind his back and wont show anybody what he is hiding, it raises my alert to suspect something is going on, especially if the scout has acted up before. Saddam was asked, requested and cajoled to let the UN Inspectors do their job, and he refused. So, based on his refusal to do what he said he would do, and based on his personal history, he was removed from power. And we havent found the WMD

 

Now, I ask, if we had not removed Saddam, and a dirty bomb, sarin gas, some kind of horrific event that would make 9/11 look small had occured and it was traced back to Iraq, what would be said about GW now? That he was asleep at the wheel, that he was an idiot for ignoring all the signs that this would happen, that we knew he had WMD, hadnt he used them on his own people? Isnt there a video clip of John Kerry saying Saddam had WMD along with scores of other people? The same people who rip him now for starting the war, would be the people demanding to know why he didnt act.

 

Saddam was not just another despot killing and torturing his own people, he had invaded another country and had used WMD. He was supposed to allow inspections of his country per his agreement, when he refused to allow those inspections, didnt you wonder why? Maybe there were no WMD, maybe they are on trucks in Syria, I dont know and have no clue but its not like Saddam didnt have a history of international violence before Gulf War II

[Kahuna]

For the record, I never suggested that there was a connection between Iraq and 9/11, just between Iraq and Al Queda. If there were no connection, I don't believe we would be seeing the influx of Al Queda terrorists into Iraq now. Wouldn't they be more likely to be fighting in Afghanistan?

 

BTW, it is a fact that virtually all legitimate intelligence agencies believed Saddam had WMDs. So did the Clinton administration and most members of Congress.

 

I won't slander Jimmy Carter, but, although he has done a lot of good in his retirement (I mean his philanthropic efforts such as Habit for Humanity), his continual carping about his successors and his insinuation of himself into virtually every international situation (usually not to the benefit of the U.S.) do not give me the feeling that he is a truly good man.

[stlscouter]

Maybe we should redefine WMD to read weapons of massTRANSIT destruction.

[Rooster7]

Prairie_Scouter,

 

ANSWERS TO ALL YOUR QUESTIONS:

 

So, we're not supposed to believe the findings of the 9-11 commission?

 

Where does it say: It is impossible that Iraq and Al Qaeda collaborated? Not being able to find proof to substantiate a claim, does not nullify it as a possibility. I repeat. The absence of proof is not validation for either side of the argument.

 

At what point do we have enough evidence? Who would you find believable?

 

We may never know all of the answers. The so-called evidence is lacking on both sides. If you want to believe the worst conspiracies, corruption, etc. thats your prerogative. However, your apparent preference for such an ugly outcome does not make it so.

 

Don't you find it kind of bothersome that so far nobody's been able to substantiate any of the claims the U.S. made before invading Iraq? At some point, don't you need some evidence?

 

Frankly, I hope the President was wrong. I would prefer to hear that Iraq wasnt able to develop any WMDs, despite their desire to do so. No matter, I think the President and those around him acted reasonably and honorably. They felt Iraq was a threat if not directly to us, then to peace in the region. Either way, Im convinced we America, did the right thing.

 

But, if the reason we did that is because he was a terrible leader and killed a lot of his citizens, I guess we've got a few more invasions in front of us, given the number of bad leaders who are killing their citizens that are still around.

 

Perhaps we do. If these governments are set on evil ways why shouldnt we consider military action?

 

Which does bring the question of why haven't we done anything about other occurrences of this kind of thing around the world?

 

North Korea? China? Im not sure which governments you are referring to but surely you have the intellectual wherewithal to understand that every situation is differentthat one size does not fit all. We are applying pressure to these countries and others. Regardless, our government is not so stupid that they would approach every enemy or hostile nation as if one was exactly like the other. Are North Korea and China already in possession of a nuclear weapon? If so, doesnt that change the scenario? Does each of these nations have a well developed conventional military? Yes. At what point do you recognize these differences and change your approach?

 

The U.N. isn't there to forward the agenda of the United States.

 

That much is for certain.

 

It certainly isn't perfect

 

This is perhaps your biggest understatement.

 

but I think it does a reasonable job of trying to bring together a large number of countries, each with their own agenda.

 

 

Yes, an assortment of countries (China, North Korea, Libya, Cuba, Iran, Iraq, etc.) which want to grind an ax with the United States are given plenty of room to rant. The U.N. has done a great job of unifying their animosity and providing them a worldwide platform.

 

It doesn't help the U.N. that the U.S. is walking around basically saying, "we're a member of the U.N., but we're not going to let that stop us from going and blowing up some other country if we don't happen to agree with their agenda".

 

Call me silly, but I think a government should act in such a way that it represents the best interests of its citizenry - even if such actions goes against another country or a multitude of countries. The U.S. should be working to ensure this countrys survival and prosperity above any other nations or nations desire to the contrary.

 

Sure, we could walk away. We've walked out on other treaty obligations during this administration; what's one more?

 

Well, before I comment, youll have to produce more than a slur. What treaty did this administration agree to and then ignore?

 

What makes you think that the invasion of Iraq had anything to do with "righteousness"?

 

Ive already answered that question. The disposal of a ruthless dictator is a pretty good reason by itself.

 

And, how is suggesting that someone read a book "slanderous"?

 

It doesnt take a secret decoder ring to figure out what this poster is suggesting - that other posters in this thread are incapable, or refuse to, to see the truth. Since I am obviously on the other side of fence here yes, I find his suggestion to be insulting. Hes not arguing any points made for or against his viewpoints. He is simply smearing those who disagree with him.

 

What part of our Judeo-Christian ethic says if you don't like somebody, it's ok to kill them?

 

Is that what happen to Saddam Hussein? Is he dead? Was his Republican Guard destroyed because they refused to hand out candy to little children or sing God Bless America? Please, keep it real. Dont ignore the truth about Hussein's regime. I know an Iraqi or two. I know what that government was about. Do you know who and what you are defending?

(This message has been edited by Rooster7)(This message has been edited by Rooster7)

[Rooster7]

Kahuna,

 

We do not share the same faith. However, I find myself nodding my head to your posts. You seem to have a good understanding of the political landscape in and out of this country.

 

There are several folks on this forum that I have really come to like. Some, we share the same faith. Others, I agree with politically. And for some others, simply because they can put together a well reasoned argument. As Meatloaf once sang, two out of three ain't bad!

 

Be that as it may, I will pray for you. Please take that as a compliment - as it was meant to be.

 

[Prairie_Scouter]

Well, Rooster, if you were going to offer to answer ALL of my question, I would have thrown in the one about how can I retire now instead of waiting until 65?

 

In any event...

You seem to think that I'm looking for the worst in anything the Bush Administration does. That's not true, really. When he was first elected, although I didn't vote for him, he seemed like a nice enough guy and tried to give him a chance. Just hasn't worked out for me; I guess. I don't see him reaching "across the aisle" like he promised, for one thing.

 

If you want to look for other cases of mass murder being enacted on their citizenry, pick the African nation of your choice; you've got a pretty good chance of naming one that has a "bad guy" in charge that is trying kill off it's citizenry. Not referring to North Korea or China.

 

You're right, one size does not fit all. However, one report I've seen estimated that Iraq was 5 years away from being a nuclear threat to us, while North Korea presented an imminent danger. Yet, we decided to strong action against Iraq, and have taken a more laid back approach to North Korea. Seems like the priorities are mixed up. We could have easily waited on the Iraq issue, I think, and possible avoided the war altogether if, as the president said, the WMD issue was a reason for invasion.

 

Gee, I don't suppose you're anti-UN, are you?

 

Treaties? Ok perhaps I should have used the more generic "international obligations". And, it's really not fair to play games with the wording by asking what treaty "they agreed to and then ignored". If that were true, we'd have to renogiate every treaty we've ever agreed to every time there is a change in administration.

Well, there's the nuclear non-proliferation treaty. (all so we could install the anti-missile defense system that only works if you put homing beacons on the targets. That hasn't stopped the Administration from forcing implementation even tho it doesn't work)

There's the Geneva Conventions, which we've been playing footloose and fancy free with.

There's the Kyoto Protocols, which we gave every indication of signing on to, and then backed away from late in the game.

And, we're busily working towards violating the treaty, and I forget the name, that prohibits the use of space based weapons systems.

 

Saddam? No, he's not dead, but the citizens of Iraq probably don't take much solace from that. At the latest count, we've managed to kill more citizens in Iraq than we've killed opposing military forces. Don't for a second think that I was defending Saddam; I wasn't defending him or his regime at all.

 

But, even Republicans are saying that we can't be the policemen to the world. If the only criteria we need to invade another country is that we don't like them, we're going to be very busy. Personally, I think that we SHOULD take action when something shameful is happening in other parts of the world. Saddam was a bad guy, and he was doing bad things. But, that isn't the reason we were given for going to war. If that was the reason, then the American people should have been told that. Maybe we would have all been in favor, maybe not. It's not our job to install democracy throughout the world. If people want it, we should be willing to help them, but to force it on them is not our job.

 

But, now, back to the really important question, if you're going to answer ALL my questions...what about that retirement thing?

[Rooster7]

If you want to look for other cases of mass murder being enacted on their citizenry, pick the African nation of your choice; you've got a pretty good chance of naming one that has a "bad guy" in charge that is trying kill off it's citizenry.

 

Ill give you a point or two for Africa. I dont understand why we havent been more aggressive there. I know what the left would say thoughBush is racist. I dont believe that, but I agree that we ought to be acting more forcefully to give those folks some relief.

 

You're right, one size does not fit all. However, one report I've seen estimated that Iraq was 5 years away from being a nuclear threat to us, while North Korea presented an imminent danger. Yet, we decided to strong action against Iraq, and have taken a more laid back approach to North Korea.

 

Laid back? Let me see, two guys are threatening me (or a neighbor, it doesnt matter). One is about to reach for a gun, so I step in front of him and knock him out. The other has a gun, so I step in front of himwait a minute, maybe I shouldnt do that. Perhaps I should try to talk to this guy first since hes already has the capacity to do immediate and meaningful harm. Perhaps, this situation requires a different course of action. Additionally, Iraq proved that they are willing to go outside their own borders (i.e. the invasion of Kuwait). North Korea has stayed in their little corner of the globe for the last 50 years. From where Im standing, Bush acted properly by invading Iraq.

 

Gee, I don't suppose you're anti-UN, are you?

 

Im not a fan.

 

Well, there's the nuclear non-proliferation treaty. (all so we could install the anti-missile defense system that only works if you put homing beacons on the targets. That hasn't stopped the Administration from forcing implementation even tho it doesn't work)

 

When did we sign a non-proliferation treaty which banned the development of a defensive weapon? If we did, please provide the treaty name and the language therein.

 

There's the Geneva Conventions, which we've been playing footloose and fancy free with.

 

Well, there are two problems with this assertion. It applies to the nations who signed it, not terrorist organizations. And, according to the reports I hear, we are voluntarily following it. In what circumstance since 9-11 have we not?

 

There's the Kyoto Protocols, which we gave every indication of signing on to, and then backed away from late in the game.

 

Since we didnt sign, were not acting unethically. Close only counts in horseshoes.

 

And, we're busily working towards violating the treaty, and I forget the name, that prohibits the use of space based weapons systems.

 

Sounds like an unsubstantiated accusation. Could you provide some detailsany details?

 

Saddam? No, he's not dead, but the citizens of Iraq probably don't take much solace from that. At the latest count, we've managed to kill more citizens in Iraq than we've killed opposing military forces.

 

Man, do you know how to spin a web.

 

First The Iraqi people are extremely happy that he is out of power. Ask the American soldiers who have been there and talked to those who were forced to live under his rule.

 

Second, Saddam has murdered more people in one weekend than those killed by friendly-fire.

 

Third, since when does the U.S. get the blame for murders committed by terrorists?

 

It's not our job to install democracy throughout the world. If people want it, we should be willing to help them, but to force it on them is not our job.

 

So the Iraqi people were happy? They didnt want us to overthrow Hussein? I dont buy that for one second. Furthermore, if we dont instill democracies where we can then dont be surprised to see your great grandchildren dieing to protect our borders. We cant play the isolationist and expect that we will remain comfortable within our own little world. Were a part of the bigger picture whether we like it or not. If we dont act today and pick our battles, then tomorrow the battles will come to us.

 

But, now, back to the really important question, if you're going to answer ALL my questions...what about that retirement thing?

 

Get yourself a time machine and invest in a small company named Microsoft...Or, if you're single, hang around a lady name Martha Stewart and encourage her to pursue a career in home decor.

 

[Kahuna]

Rooster7: Thank you on both accounts. I need all the prayers I can get, whether they are from those of my faith or not. I agree with you in your arguments on this issue as well.

 

Of course, I've said before that, IMHO, one cannot deny the Judeo-Christian heritage of this country and how it impacts us all for the better.